Growing up near Bowl Canyon on the Navajo Nation Reservation,
Damon Clark '17 would play cowboys and Indians. "When I was a kid,
I wanted to be the cowboy, because the cowboy kills the Indian,"
he says. "You know who wins, and you know who loses."
The cowboy-Indian divide is not so black and white now as it
was when Clark's great-great-grandfather, Chief Manuelito, led a
guerrilla war in the 1860s to oppose the U.S. government's forced
relocation of the tribe. Clark firmly considers himself Navajo"I
know how to introduce myself, I know the history, I live the culture"
but he is not fluent in the language. Neither are many of his peers:
of the 300,000 Navajos in the United States, almost half do not
speak Navajo at home. And this challenge is not confined to one
tribe. At the Ivy Native Council Summit in Brown University in October,
for instance, only two out of 125 attendees were fluent in their
tribal language.
For Native American communities, the language issue compounds
other obstacles that they feel are chipping away at their heritage.
Eighty-eight percent of self-identifying Native Americans live off
reservations, and only a quarter speak their traditional language
at home. Added to that is the hefty challenge of economic development
and education in communities that, on average, are significantly
poorer than non-Native America. Teachers and administrators who
are attempting to retain native language programs face members in
these communities who view embracing English as the key to socioeconomic
success and students who are indifferent about learning their traditional
tongue. This divide points to a larger question: without the Navajo
language, what does it mean to be Navajo?
These issues of language and identity have become even more
salient in recent years. Recently, Lucasfilm released a Navajo version
of Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, and Disney announced plans
to release a translation of Finding Nemo. In October, the Navajo
Nation Supreme Court disqualified the presidential candidacy of
Chris Deschene, a highly educated lawyer, engineer, and veteran,
on the grounds that he was not fluent in Navajo. (A legislative
move to retroactively change the language requirements for presidential
candidates was vetoed by the current president, Ben Shelly.)
The difficulties facing Navajo language education have remained
fairly consistent since the revival of interest in indigenous culture
and activism in the 1970s as part of the civil rights movement and
the passage of the 1972 Indian Education Act and the 1975 Indian
Self-Assistance and Education Assistance Act. According to Dr. AnCita
Benally, the education program manager at the Office of Standards,
Curriculum, and Assessments Development at the Navajo Nation Department
of Dine´ Education, many community members believe that classes
about Dine´ (the Navajo word for the Navajo language and people)
are irrelevant or even counterproductive. Such people, she says,
believe that "academic achievement
[can]
be achieved only with English." Frequently, administrators and teachers
think that teaching the language is pointless, and parents argue
that cultural education should be taught at home or left by the
wayside. "And so people are assuming that if there is a lot of Navajo
language and culture education, it will interfere with the academic
success," she concludes.
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The
memorial to Navajo code talkers remembers the Navajo U.S.
Veterans who used their native language to translate and transmit
secret military messages during World War II and the Korean
War. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never
to have been deciphered.
(photo by John Fowler )
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At home, though, many parents either continue to emphasize English,
or they are unfamiliar with Navajo themselvesa product of
similar emphasis by their own parents and schools. Shelly Lowe,
the executive director of the Harvard University Native American
Program, explains that her parents' generation was taught to prioritize
English. "My grandparents' generation would still speak to them
in Navajo, [but] the expectation was, 'You speak English, and that's
important.' So when my generation came along, we were primarily
and only taught English in a lot of cases. Even though we knew and
listened to our parents speak to our grandparents in Navajo
we were spoken to in English." This prioritization had a self-perpetuating
effect: as more and more Navajos became used to English in business
and daily life, it became the de facto necessary language for economic
success.
This vicious cycle is compounded for those Native Americans
who live off reservations. In more urban or heterogeneous areas,
the forces of assimilation are even stronger: children attend English-speaking
public schools with peers whose cultural backgrounds are strikingly
different from their tribal heritage. For such off-reservation Indians,
the pragmatic benefits of English are even more striking, and the
need for their native language seems all the more unclear.
As a result, most school-age Navajosespecially those that
don't speak Dine´ at homeare apathetic towards learning
their tribal language. In Dr. Benally's view, they're "more interested
in music and texting their friends and that kind of stuff," but
music, texts, movies, and websites are all in English. Those that
are about to graduate or attend universities often experience renewed
interest in their heritage, but by then they are making up for lost
time. "Once they get into college, a lot of them finally realize
what they don't have."
Dinee´ Dorame, Yale University senior from Albuquerque,
N.M. experienced this pattern. Her mother's fluency in Navajo had
a limited effect, and her interest in learning the language only
began near the end of high school. "I just never really picked up
on it as a kid because she thought it was much more important for
me to be fluent and able to study in English," she explains. Dorame
became curious about learning Navajo at the same time as she considered
applying for the Chief Manuelito Scholarship. (Clark's great-great-grandfather
is now the namesake of a middle school in Gallup, N.M. as well as
a scholarship that provides college funds for high-achieving Navajo
students who have also completed Navajo language and government
courses.) Thus, she enrolled in an approved Navajo class at the
University of New Mexico.
But the course would introduce new hindrances. In short, the
entire classroom structurethe textbooks, the rigidity of the
curriculum, the heterogeneous and confusing mixture of Navajo and
non-Navajo studentsresulted in class that was both ineffective
and ultimately disappointing. "Oftentimes, native languages aren't
meant to be taught in that environment," she believes. "Many native
languages incorporate cultural values within the language, so it's
really hard to teach it within this Western education structure."
It is difficult for a large classroom setting to replicate the experience
of learning a language in daily life through discussions, songs,
and stories. But in cultures where the oral nature of the language
is so importantand where these community discussions are important
in teaching other traditional practices, beliefs, and valuesstripping
this aspect from the curriculum often results in a truncated education.
At Yale, Dorame enrolled in a Directed Independent Language
Study program, which paired her with another student and a certified
Navajo teacher twice a week. The small size allowed for greater
flexibility while avoiding the pitfalls of the larger, more impersonal
University of New Mexico class. (Most universities, including Harvard,
do not teach native languages, often because of a lack of qualified
teachers, funding, or student interest.) When it comes to native
languages, she maintains, "[Native language programs] weren't mean
to teach through textbooks. They're meant to teach through oral
histories, through your ways of living, through prayer, through
song. That is part of your language-learning experience."
Dorame's story points to the dual challenge faced by Navajo
students. First, there's the issue of community support: if children,
parents, and teachers are unconvinced that schools should provide
language instruction, then the programs are dead in the water. But
even if everyone agrees that Navajo education is an important part
of the curriculum, there's still the question of how to implement
the new programs in the most effective way possible.
The first task, then, is one of persuasion, where advocates
like Dr. Benally argue that traditional school subjects like math,
science, and history can be taught just as effectively in Navajo
as in English. However, even where Navajo language courses are implemented,
students often graduate with mediocre results. Dorame notes, "One
problem we're finding in these schools is that students go through
the program and then feel like they haven't learned very much. I
think a lot of that has to do with the way we're structuring the
program and the way [schools] are teaching it." The challenge lies
in implementing curricula that avoid the pitfalls of Dorame's University
of New Mexico class by making the language engaging and meaningful.
In order for language to play a role in identity, it seems that
language courses must speak to students' sense of identity in the
first place.
Increasingly, schools are attempting to fill the native language
education gap. The Department of Dine´ Education, for instance,
trains language teachers and develops standards, curricula, and
assessments for the Navajo language and culture courses at the 32
schools on the reservation funded by Bureau of Indian Affairs grants.
In Flagstaff, Arizona, Puente de Ho´zho´ Bilingual Magnet
School offers immersion programs from kindergarten through fifth
grade in its Spanish/English and Navajo/English programs. In Albuquerque,
the Native American Community Academy (NACA) offers courses in Navajo,
Lakota, Tiwa, Tewa, and Zuni, as well as Native American literature.
NACA also helps spread its model of community-oriented language
and cultural education through the NACA-Inspired Schools Network,
which currently includes three partner schools. One of those schools,
Dream Dine´, opened this summer in Shiprock, N.M., in the
heart of the Navajo Nation Reservation.
Kara Bobroff founded NACA as a charter school in 2006 after
discussions with over 150 community members revealed that the public
school system was insufficiently addressing the cultural needs of
Native American students. "Preparing students academically for college,
making sure they have a secure identity, and [ensuring] that they're
healthy were the three things that continued to come up in the conversations,"
she recalls. The charter school incorporates these goals into its
mission, and in the classroom, students actively discuss issues
of identity as seen through literature, history, and contemporary
issues in their communities. "We don't really have a set way of
saying, like, 'This is how you have to think about your tribal identity!'"
she says, laughing. "We want our kids to understand that they are
the drivers of their identity."
Once schools like NACA implement programs to ensure native language
and cultural education, the next task is to acquire consistent funds
and high-quality teachers. New Mexico's Indian Education Act supports
charter schools throughout the state, but for many grant schools,
it is difficult to ensure funds. Historically, federal grants have
operated on fairly short timeframes, so recipient schools have had
to continuously apply for scarce funding. This summer, the Senate
Committee on Indian Affairs held hearings on language education
grant reform. Although two bills passed the committee that would
facilitate and finance grants in the Departments of Education and
Health and Human Services, both have been held up in the Senate
since July.
Teacher training is an equally hefty challenge. "In the past,
people have been assigned to teach Navajo language and culture just
because they're Navajo and they can speak Navajo. And not all of
them are able to teach, because they don't know how," explains Dr.
Benally. This problem is even more imposing for smaller tribes,
where the number of native speakers is swiftly decreasing. Therefore,
the Navajo Nation has initiated teacher-training programs, and schools
like NACA send their instructors to places like the Lakota Summer
Institute in North Dakota. The Department of Dine´ Education
has also released textbooks and curricula for use in grant and charter
schools. However, there's still the ever-present difficulty of making
language education effective and meaningful for students like Dine´e
Dorame and Damon Clark, who exist at the intersection of cross-cutting
cultural boundaries, assimilating forces, and traditions. The task
exists in every classroom to foster the bond between language and
cultureso central in the lives of older generationsfor
Navajo youth.
Damon Clark is growing out his hair to remind himself of his
heritage. "You see these elders with long hair, and you aspire for
that," he says. He is acutely aware of the ways that Navajo culture
is threatened: on and off the reservation, in and out of school,
"you face that fact that you're in assimilation." For many Navajo
today, the solution is to be proactive in sustaining the language
in the classroom.
And there have been definite, if limited, successes. Before
she hangs up, AnCita Benally mentions a story told to her by a colleague
who went to Albuquerque for a meeting. In the schoolyard, he noticed
that two young girls were playing with each other in Navajo. "In
60 years, maybe these two little girls will be in their seventies,
and they will still have the language," she concludes. "So we get
surprises."
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